Spontaneous Combustion or Mind over Matter

[Sharing Lights]

Human mind has an amazing ability
of almost God like inheritance to alter and shape
its body and the surrounding matter.

Spirit over mater indeed.

By concentrating mentally (meditating and/or contemplating, and, yes, by praying,)
we can transform the energy of the thinking waves,
as thoughts-thinking process is energy,
into developing and strengthening our, internal
energy channels.

A human mind has the capacity to alter physical structures and environment.

Telekinesis (movement of object by mental concentration)
is possible by super concentration on a chosen spot similar to the aimed, laser beam of light.

tel·e·ki·ne·sis
n.
The movement of objects by scientifically inexplicable means, as by the exercise of an occult power.

telekinetic tel'e·ki·net'ic (-nĕt'ĭk) adj.
telekinetically tel'e·ki·net'i·cal·ly adv.

Objects can be moved in space by intense concentration,
as well as fire can be started by the same.

Chines Masters of TaiChi are able to light up fire on a
flammable object by the concentrating internal energy,
mostly ac***ulated from the Sun, via their hands,
which are moved over the object in passes.

They utilize certain movements of hands synchronized with proper breathing, as concentrated
flow of Oxygen, "broken" down inside, releases a
tremendous, amount of energy.

These Masters can control the release of energy
from O2, internally.

Why do you think all styles of Oriental disciplines advocate the art of proper breathing?

That allows to tune in to harmonious state as
te breathing is rhythmic and, also to derive
the energy the molecules of Oxygen contain once
they release the former.

The masters do it consciously, as consciousness
is energy and energy acting on trapped energy
releases much more and faster as the combined
field is intensified in te proportion of
the mental concentration.

Fingers act as powerful antennas and re-transmit the
currents of energy in space.

Once concentration is achieved, a flame is the result.

Our brain has the capacity of thousands of nuclear
reactors, joined together, literally.

If we were to able to enter the higher oscillations
of the certain frequency existing in Cosmos,
we could literally, explode the stars at great distances.

Yet, Nature prevents us from accomplishing that, as
imagine the consequences if immoral people
achieving such level of concentration?

Created in the image of God

is is more than a phrase.


We can, potentially, do anything that exists
in the Universe as we are made of the same elements.

The most primal of them all is Light.

We are of Light, therefore, can do anything that it can.

It is our pollution that prevents us from the above.

The more we cleanse ourselves physically and mentally,
the more pure and "transparent" we become.

The future races of humans would be, literally, more
transparent than we are now.

There are accidents that have occurred,
when a person due to a brain decease or
being located at the crossings of the superpower-full
magnetic lines of the Earth,
entered a higher frequency of the

brain, being
switched, "accidentally" to the mode of oscillation that
were multiplied by a resonance.

Dogs and cats feel those electro-magnetic grids of the
Earth very well as so do birds, fish,
and many other species.

It is believed that birds rely on stars position for their
flight navigations at night.

I believe that birds rely more on their perception of the
electro-magnetic grids of the Earth which guide them to
their destination.

I don't believe that birds fly at night too often, except
owls and bats, and some others.

I believe that bird can navigate very well even
during rains.

Some people can feel the flashes of the Earth currents,
particularly when the Earth core and the atmospheric
fluctuations, mostly in the Ionosphere,
enter the same amplitude.

Anything that stand in between (top and bottom) is "radiated" by such interaction.

When we stand in certain spots,
we can feel a hot flash going through us.

Some may attribute that to menopause in women.

How about men?

Some men may act as they are going
through menopause;
yet, their "hot flashes" may be attributed to
standing at the center of the magnetic "grid."


The energy projected involuntarily once the brain is
triggered by the currents was so intense that the
amplitude of the directed waves invoked from the
outside, caused what is called -

spontaneous combustion.

The unfortunate person was burned to ashes
on the spot.

Science can't explain it yet but some people, even
though, extremely rarely,
burn without any, apparent reason.

It is a very rare phenomena indeed
but is is a purely physical one.

The Esoteric explanation would find its analogue in
modern science, one day.

PS.

I would list basic scientific data on:

Oxygen,

then, on

Hydrogen,

as these, two elements are the key to life and understanding of the Cosmic interaction, as well as
those of men. (read of women too.)

I would stimulate your thinking already:

One of them signifies - the forces of Spirit.
The other one - of Form.

One is represented as a zero
and the other one - as a 1.


If you notice, combinations of zero and one can
produce propagation of information in the computer field.

Combined H and O2 produce Water, which is the essence of Life.

[Sharing Lights]

ox·y·gen
n. (Symbol O)

A nonmetallic element constituting 21 percent of the atmosphere by volume that occurs as a diatomic gas, O2, and in many compounds such as water and iron ore. It combines with most elements, is essential for plant and animal respiration, and is required for nearly all combustion. Atomic number 8; atomic weight 15.9994; melting point −218.4°C; boiling point −183.0°C; gas density at 0°C 1.429 grams per liter; valence 2.

[French oxygène : Greek oxus, sharp, acid + French -gène, -gen.]

oxygenic ox'y·gen'ic (-jĕn'ĭk) adj.
oxygenically ox'y·gen'i·cal·ly adv.
oxygenous ox·yg'e·nous (ŏk-sĭj'ə-nəs) adj.

oxygen,

gaseous chemical element; symbol O; at. no. 8; at. wt. 15.9994; m.p. −218.4°C; b.p. −182.962°C; density 1.429 grams per liter at STP; valence −2. The existence and properties of oxygen had been noted by many scientists before the announcement of its isolation by Priestley in 1774. Scheele had also succeeded in preparing oxygen from a number of substances, but publication of his findings was delayed until after that of Priestley's. As a result, Priestley and Scheele are credited with the discovery of the element independently. The fact that the gas is a component of the atmosphere was finally and definitely established by Lavoisier a few years later. In 1929, W. F. Giaque and H. L. Johnston announced the discovery of two isotopes of oxygen, of mass numbers 17 and 18.



Properties and Compounds

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas; it is the first member of group VIa of the periodic table. It is denser than air and only slightly soluble in water. A poor conductor of heat and electricity, oxygen supports combustion but does not burn. Normal atmospheric oxygen is a diatomic gas (O2) with molecular weight 31.9988. Ozone is a highly reactive triatomic (O3) allotrope of oxygen (see allotropy). When cooled below its boiling point oxygen becomes a pale blue liquid; when cooled still further the liquid solidifies, retaining its color. Oxygen is paramagnetic in its solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. Although eight isotopes of oxygen are known, atmospheric oxygen is a mixture of the three isotopes with mass numbers 16, 17, and 18.

Oxygen is extremely active chemically, forming compounds with almost all of the elements except the inert gases. Oxygen unites directly with a number of other elements to form oxides. It is a constituent of many acids and of hydroxides, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, alcohols, cellulose, and numerous other compounds such as the carbonates, chlorates, nitrates and nitrites, phosphates and phosphites, and sulphates and sulphites.

The common reaction in which it unites with another substance is called oxidation (see oxidation and reduction). The burning of substances in air is rapid oxidation or combustion. The respiration of animals and plants is a form of oxidation essential to the liberation of the energy stored in such food materials as carbohydrates and fats. The rusting of iron and the corrosion of many metals results from the action of the oxygen in the air.

Natural Occurrence and Preparation

Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth, constituting about half of the total material of its surface. Most of this oxygen is combined in the form of silicates, oxides and water. It makes up about 90% of water, two thirds of the human body and one fifth by volume of air. It is found in the sun, and has a role in the stellar carbon cycle (see nucleosynthesis). Oxygen is prepared for commercial use by the liquefaction and fractional distillation of air and more expensively by the electrolysis of water; it is stored and transported under high pressure in steel cylinders. It can also be obtained by heating certain of its compounds, such as barium peroxide, potassium chlorate, and the red oxide of mercury.

Uses

Oxygen is of great importance in the chemical and the iron and steel industries. Its major use is in steel production, for example in the Bessemer process. The oxyacetylene torch is another important industrial application. Oxygen is utilized in medicine in the treatment of respiratory diseases and is mixed with other gases for respiration in submarines, high-flying aircraft, and spacecraft. Liquid oxygen is used as an oxidizer in the fuel systems of large rockets.

Oxygen was formerly the official standard for the atomic weights of elements. The chemists used natural oxygen, a mixture of three isotopes, to which the value of 16 was assigned while the physicists assigned the value of 16 specifically to the oxygen isotope 16. In 1961 carbon-12 replaced oxygen as the standard.



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Science
oxygen

An element, normally a gas, that makes up about one-fifth of the atmosphere of the Earth. Oxygen is usually found as a molecule made up of two atoms. Its symbol is O.


When we breathe in oxygen, it is carried by the hemoglobin in our blood throughout the body, where it is used to generate energy by oxidation. (See respiration.)
Oxygen is a waste product of green plants and photosynthesis.


Medical
ox·y·gen

n. (Symbol O)
An element constituting 21 percent of the atmosphere by volume that occurs as a diatomic gas, O2, combines with most elements, is essential for plant and animal respiration, and is required for nearly all combustion. Atomic number 8; atomic weight 15.9994; melting point −218.8°C; boiling point −183.0°C; gas density at 0°C 1.429 grams per liter; valence 2.
A medicinal gas containing not less than 99.0 percent, by volume, of O2.




Cosmic Lexicon

Oxygen

An element with atomic number 8; symbol: O. It is actually the most common element in the crusts and mantles of the inner planets and rocky moons, making up all silicate minerals. Along with hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, oxygen is essential to life.

oxygen

IN BRIEF: A tasteless, colorless, odorless gas that is found in air.

When oxygen and hydrogen find one another, their joining produces fiery passion. Out of this fire, water is born. — Ian D. Anderson, from Ian Lurking Bear.

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[Sharing Lights]

The noun oxygen has one meaning:

Meaning #1: a nonmetallic bivalent element that is normally a colorless odorless tasteless nonflammable diatomic gas; constitutes 21 percent of the atmosphere by volume; the most abundant element in the earth's crust
Synonyms: O, atomic number 8



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8 nitrogen ← oxygen → fluorine
-
↑
O
↓
S
periodic table


General
Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8
Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens
Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p
Appearance colorless

Atomic mass 15.9994(3) g/mol
Electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p4
Electrons per shell 2, 6
Physical properties
Phase gas
Density (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
1.429 g/L
Melting point 54.36 K
(-218.79 °C, -361.82 °F)
Boiling point 90.20 K
(-182.95 °C, -297.31 °F)
Critical point 154.59 K, 5.043 MPa
Heat of fusion (O2) 0.444 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization (O2) 6.82 kJ/mol
Heat capacity (25 °C) (O2)
29.378 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 61 73 90

Atomic properties
Crystal structure cubic
Oxidation states −2, −1
(neutral oxide)
Electronegativity 3.44 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more) 1st: 1313.9 kJ/mol
2nd: 3388.3 kJ/mol
3rd: 5300.5 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 60 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 48 pm
Covalent radius 73 pm
Van der Waals radius 152 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 26.58 mW/(m·K)
Speed of sound (gas, 27 °C) 330 m/s
CAS registry number 7782-44-7
Notable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of oxygen iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
16O 99.76% O is stable with 8 neutrons
17O 0.038% O is stable with 9 neutrons
18O 0.21% O is stable with 10 neutrons

References
Oxygen is a chemical element in the periodic table. It has the symbol O and atomic number 8. Oxygen is the second most common element on Earth composing around 46% of the mass of Earth's crust and 28% of the mass of Earth as a whole, and is the third most common element in the universe. On Earth, it is usually covalently or ionically bonded to other elements. Unbound oxygen (usually called molecular dioxygen, O2, a diatomic molecule) first appeared in significant quantities on Earth during the Paleoproterozoic era (between 2500 million years ago and 1600 million years ago) as a product of the metabolic action of early anaerobes (archaea and bacteria). According to most experts, this new presence of large amounts of free oxygen drove most of the organisms then living to extinction. The atmospheric abundance of free oxygen in later geological epochs and up to the present has been largely driven by photosynthetic organisms, roughly three quarters by phytoplankton and algae in the oceans and one quarter from terrestrial plants.

Characteristics
At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen exists as a diatomic molecule with the formula O2, in which the two oxygen atoms are doubly bonded to each other. In its most stable form, oxygen exists as a diradical (triplet oxygen). Though radicals are commonly associated with highly reactive compounds, triplet oxygen is surprisingly (and fortunately) unreactive towards most compounds. Singlet oxygen, a name given to several higher energy species in which all the electron spins are paired, is much more reactive towards common organic molecules. Carotenoids effectively absorb energy from singlet oxygen and convert it back into the unexcited ground state.

Oxygen is a major component of air, produced by plants during photosynthesis, and is necessary for aerobic respiration in animals.

The word oxygen derives from two words in Greek, οξυς (oxys) (acid, sharp) and γεινομαι (geinomai) (engender). The name "oxygen" was chosen because, at the time it was discovered in the late 18th century, it was believed that all acids contained oxygen. The definition of acid has since been revised to not require oxygen in the molecular structure. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) does not contain oxygen. Liquid O2 and solid O2 have a light blue color and both are highly paramagnetic. Liquid O2 is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Liquid and solid O3 (ozone) have a deeper color of blue.

A recently discovered allotrope of oxygen, tetraoxygen (O4), is a deep red solid that is created by pressurizing O2 to the order of 20 GPa.

Its properties are being studied for use in rocket fuels and similar applications, as it is a much more powerful oxidizer than either O2 or O3.

Applications
Liquid oxygen finds use as an oxidizer in rocket propulsion. Oxygen is essential to respiration, so oxygen supplementation has found use in medicine (as oxygen therapy). People who climb mountains or fly in airplanes sometimes have supplemental oxygen supplies (to increase the inspired Oxygen partial pressure nearer to that found at sea-level requires increasing the proportion as a percentage of air). Oxygen is used in welding (such as the oxyacetylene torch), and in the making of steel and methanol.

Oxygen presents two absorption band centered in the wavelengths 687 and 760 nanometers. Some scientists have proposed to use the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those oxygen bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform. This is because in those bands, it is possible to discriminate the vegetation's reflectance from the vegetation's fluorescence, which is much weaker. The measurement presents several technical difficulties due to the low signal to noise ratio and due to the vegetation's architecture, but it has been proposed as a possibility to monitor the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale.

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Oxygen, as a mild euphoric, has a history of recreational use that extends into modern times. Oxygen bars can be seen at parties to this day. In the 19th century, oxygen was often mixed with nitrous oxide to promote an analgesic effect; a stable 50% gaseous mixture (Entonox) is commonly used in medicine today as an analgesic, and 30% oxygen with 70% Nitrous Oxide is the common basic anaesthetic mixture.

According to urban legend, oxygen is supposedly pumped into casinos to keep gamblers alert and keep them gambling.[1]

History
Oxygen was first discovered by Michał Sędziwój, Polish alchemist and philosopher in late 16th century. Sędziwój assumed the existence of oxygen by warming nitre (saltpeter). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life".

Oxygen was again discovered by the Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele sometime before 1773, but the discovery was not published until after the independent discovery by Joseph Priestley on August 1, 1774, who called the gas dephlogisticated air (see phlogiston theory). Priestley published his discoveries in 1775 and Scheele in 1777; consequently Priestley is usually given the credit. It was named by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier after Priestley's publication in 1775.

Occurrence

Oxygen is the most common component of the Earth's crust (46.6% by mass), the second most common component of the Earth as a whole (28.2% by mass), and the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere (20.947% by volume).

See also Silicate minerals, Oxide minerals.

Compounds

Dioxygen, O2, is a gas and consists of 2 oxygen atoms. Oxygen is most commonly encountered in this form, as it makes up 21% of the atmosphere.
Ozone, O3, is a gas and consists of 3 oxygen atomsDue to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements hence the origin of the original definition of oxidation. The only elements to escape the possibility of oxidation are a few of the noble gases. The most famous of these oxides is water (H2O). Other well known examples include compounds of carbon and oxygen, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), alcohols (R-OH), aldehydes, (R-CHO), and carboxylic acids (R-COOH). Oxygenated radicals such as chlorates (ClO3−), perchlorates (ClO4−), chromates (CrO42−), dichromates (Cr2O72−), permanganates (MnO4−), and nitrates (NO3−) are strong oxidizing agents in and of themselves. Many metals such as iron bond with oxygen atoms, iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3). Ozone (O3) is formed by electrostatic discharge in the presence of molecular oxygen. A double oxygen molecule (O2)2 is known and is found as a minor component of liquid oxygen. Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of three atoms.

One unexpected oxygen compound is dioxygen hexafluoroplatinate O2+PtF6−. It was discovered when Neil Bartlett was studying the properties of PtF6. He noticed a change in color when this compound was exposed to atmospheric air. Bartlett reasoned that xenon should also be oxidized by PtF6. This led him to the discovery of xenon hexafluoroplatinate Xe+PtF6−.

See also Oxygen compounds.

Isotopes
Main article: isotopes of oxygen
Oxygen has seventeen known isotopes with atomic masses ranging from 12.03 u to 28.06 u. Three are stable, 16O, 17O, and 18O, of which 16O is the most abundant (over 99.7%). The radioisotopes all have half-lives of less than three minutes.

An atomic weight of 16 was assigned to oxygen prior to the definition of the unified atomic mass unit based upon 12C. Since physicists referred to 16O only, while chemists meant the naturally abundant mixture of isotopes, this led to slightly different atomic weight scales.

Precautions
Oxygen can be toxic at elevated partial pressures (i.e. high relative concentrations). This is important in some forms of scuba diving, such as with a rebreather.

Certain derivatives of oxygen, such as ozone (O3), singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals and superoxide, are also highly toxic. The body has developed mechanisms to protect against these toxic compounds. For instance, the naturally-occurring glutathione can act as an antioxidant, as can bilirubin which is normally a breakdown product of hemoglobin. To protect against the destructive nature of peroxides, nearly every organism on earth has developed some form of the enzyme catalase, which very quickly disproportionates peroxide into water and dioxygen.

Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion and therefore are fire and explosion hazards in the presence of fuels. The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew on a test launchpad spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure oxygen as would be usual in an actual flight, but to maintain positive pressure in the capsule, this was at slightly more than atmospheric pressure instead of the 1/3 pressure that would be used in flight. (See partial pressure.) Similar hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential, such as chlorates, perchlorates, and dichromates; they also can often cause chemical burns.

Oxygen derivatives are prone to form free radicals,

especially in metabolic processes. Because they can cause severe damage to cells and their DNA, they form part of theories of carcinogenesis and aging.

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hy·dro·gen
n. (Symbol H)


A colorless, highly flammable gaseous element, the lightest of all gases and the most abundant element in the universe, used in the production of synthetic ammonia and methanol, in petroleum refining, in the hydrogenation of organic materials, as a reducing atmosphere, in oxyhydrogen torches, and in rocket fuels. Atomic number 1; atomic weight 1.00794; melting point −259.14°C; boiling point −252.8°C; density at 0°C 0.08987 gram per liter; valence 1.

[French hydrogène : Greek hudro-, hydro- + French -gène, -gen.]

hydrogenous hy·drog'e·nous adj.
Hydrogen
The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.


hydrogen

[Gr.,=water forming], gaseous chemical element; symbol H; at. no. 1; at. wt. 1.00794; m.p. −259.14°C; b.p. −252.87°C; density 0.08988 grams per liter at STP; valence usually +1.
The Isotopes and Forms

Atmospheric hydrogen is a mixture of three isotopes. The most common is called protium (mass no. 1, atomic mass 1.007822); the protium nucleus (protium ion) is a proton. A second isotope of hydrogen is deuterium (mass no. 2, atomic mass 2.0140), the so-called heavy hydrogen, often represented in chemical formulas by the symbol D. The deuterium nucleus, or ion, is called the deuteron; it consists of a proton plus a neutron. The two isotopes are found in atmospheric hydrogen in the proportion of about 1 atom of deuterium to every 6,700 atoms of protium. Protium and deuterium differ slightly in their chemical and physical properties; for example, the boiling point of deuterium is about 3°C lower than protium. The properties of compounds they form differ depending on the ratio of the two isotopes present.

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Deuterium oxide (D2O), the so-called heavy water, is present in ordinary water; the concentration of deuterium oxide is increased by electrolysis of the water. The melting point (3.79°C), boiling point (101.4°C), and specific gravity (1.107 at 25°C) of deuterium oxide are higher than those of ordinary water. Deuterium oxide is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also of importance because of the wide use it has found in scientific research; for example, chemical reaction mechanisms have been studied by the use of deuterium atoms as tracers (i.e., deuterium is substituted for atoms of ordinary hydrogen in compounds), making it possible to follow the course of individual molecules in a reaction.

Tritium (mass no. 3, atomic mass 3.016), a third hydrogen isotope, is a radioactive gas with a half-life of about 121/4 years; it is often represented in chemical formulas by the symbol T. It is produced in nuclear reactors and occurs to a very limited extent in atmospheric hydrogen. It is used in the hydrogen bomb, in luminous paints, and as a tracer. The tritium nucleus, or ion, is called the triton; it consists of a proton plus two neutrons. Tritium oxide (T2O) has a melting point (4.49°C) higher than that of deuterium oxide.

Besides being a mixture of three isotopes, hydrogen is a mixture of two forms, an ortho form and a para form, which differ in their electronic and nuclear spins. At room temperature atmospheric hydrogen is about 3/4 ortho-hydrogen and 1/4 para-hydrogen. The two forms differ slightly in their physical properties.

Properties

Under ordinary conditions hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is only slightly soluble in water; it is the least dense gas known. It is the first element in group Ia of the periodic table. Ordinary hydrogen gas is made up of diatomic molecules (H2) that react with oxygen to form water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), usually as a result of combustion. A jet of hydrogen burns in air with a very hot blue flame. The flame produced by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases (as in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe) is extremely hot and is used in welding and to melt quartz and certain glasses. Hydrogen gas must be used with caution because it is highly flammable; it forms easily ignited explosive mixtures with oxygen or with air (because of the oxygen in the air). At high temperatures hydrogen is a chemically active mixture of monohydrogen (atomic hydrogen) and the normal diatomic hydrogen (see allotropy).

Hydrogen has a great affinity for oxygen and is a powerful reducing agent (see oxidation and reduction). It reacts with nitrogen to form ammonia. With the halogens it forms compounds (hydrogen halides) that are strongly acidic in water solution. With sulfur it forms hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a colorless gas with an odor like rotten eggs; with sulfur and oxygen it forms sulfuric acid. It combines with several metals to form metal hydrides such as calcium hydride. Combined with carbon (and usually other elements) it is a constituent of a great many organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, fats, oils, proteins, and organic acids and bases.

It is theoretically possible for hydrogen to exhibit the properties of a metal, such as electrical conductivity. Although researchers have been able to squeeze hydrogen into liquid and crystalline solid states through applications of intense heat, cold, and pressure, the metallic form eluded them until 1996. By compressing liquid hydrogen to nearly 2 million atmospheres pressure and a temperature of 4,400K, a team at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory created metallic hydrogen for a millionth of a second. While there is no practical application for the accomplishment, proof of the existence of a metallic form of hydrogen may have implications for theories of how Jupiter's magnetic field is produced.

Sources and Commercial Preparation

While hydrogen is only about one part per million in the atmosphere, it is the most abundant element in the universe. It is believed that hydrogen makes up about three quarters of the mass of the universe, or over 90% of the molecules. It is found in the sun and in other stars, where it is the major fuel in the fusion reactions (see nucleosynthesis) from which stars derive their energy.

Hydrogen is prepared commercially by catalytic reaction of steam with hydrocarbons, by the reaction of steam with hot coke (carbon), by the electrolysis of water, and by the reaction of mineral acids on metals. Millions of cubic feet of hydrogen gas are produced daily in the United States alone.

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Uses

Hydrogen was formerly used for filling balloons, airships, and other lighter-than-air craft, a dangerous practice because of hydrogen's explosive flammability; there were disastrous fires, e.g., the immolation of the German airship Hindenburg at its mooring at Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. Helium is preferable for use in lighter-than-air craft since it is not flammable. Hydrogen is used in the Haber process for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, in the production of methanol, and in hydrogenation of fats and oils. It is also important in low-temperature research. It can be liquefied under pressure and cooled; when the pressure is released, rapid evaporation takes place and some of the hydrogen solidifies.

Discovery of Hydrogen and Its Isotopes

Although hydrogen was prepared many years earlier, it was first recognized as a substance distinct from other flammable gases in 1766 by Henry Cavendish, who is credited with its discovery; it was named by A. L. Lavoisier in 1783. Deuterium was discovered by H. C. Urey, F. G. Brickwedde, and G. M. Murphy in 1932, although its existence had been suspected for some years. Deuterium oxide was also discovered by Urey and was first obtained in nearly pure form by G. N. Lewis. Tritium was synthesized by Ernest Rutherford, L. E. Oliphant, and Paul Harteck in 1935.



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Science
hydrogen

The lightest chemical element; its symbol is H. Hydrogen normally consists of a single electron in orbit around a nucleus made up of a single proton. It is usually found as a gas and has several uses as a fuel.


Hydrogen atoms are combined to form helium atoms in fusion reactions in stars and in hydrogen bombs, which release huge amounts of energy. Hydrogen also burns rapidly, producing water as it combines with oxygen (see H and oxidation).
For a time, hydrogen was frequently used to fill blimps and dirigibles because of its extremely low weight. In 1937, however, the hydrogen in the dirigible Hindenburg caught fire, and many of the passengers and crew were killed. Since that time, helium has been widely preferred to hydrogen for use in airships; it is not as buoyant (see buoyancy) or cheap as hydrogen, but, being an inert gas, it does not burn.
Because there is so much hydrogen in stars, it is by far the most abundant element in the universe.



Medical
hy·dro·gen
n. (Symbol H)
A colorless, highly flammable gaseous element, the most abundant in the universe, used in ammonia and methanol synthesis, in the hydrogenation of organic materials, and as a reducing atmosphere. Atomic number 1; atomic weight 1.00797; melting point −259.34°C; boiling point −252.9°C; density at 0°C 0.08988 gram per liter; valence 1.






Cosmic Lexicon
Hydrogen
An element with atomic number 1; symbol: H. It is the most abundant element in the solar system, making up 90 percent of the Sun. Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are essential for life.






hydrogen

IN BRIEF: A gas that has no color or smell, burns very easily and is the lightest of all known substances.

Some scientists claim that hydrogen, because it is so plentiful, is the basic building block of the universe. — Frank Zappa (1940-1993)



The noun hydrogen has one meaning:

Meaning #1: a nonmetallic univalent element that is normally a colorless and odorless highly flammable diatomic gas; the simplest and lightest and most abundant element in the universe
Synonyms: H, atomic number 1



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hydrogen
This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. For the physics of atomic hydrogen, see hydrogen atom.
1 (none) ← hydrogen → helium
-
↑
H
↓
Li
periodic table


General
Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1
Chemical series nonmetals
Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s
Appearance colorless

Atomic mass 1.00794(7) g/mol
Electron configuration 1s1
Electrons per shell 1
Physical properties
Phase gas
Density (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
0.08988 g/L
Melting point 14.01 K
(−259.14 °C, −434.45 °F)
Boiling point 20.28 K
(−252.87 °C, −423.17 °F)
Triple point 13.8033 K, 7.042 kPa
Critical point 32.97 K, 1.293 MPa
Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization (H2) 0.904 kJ/mol
Heat capacity (25 °C) (H2)
28.836 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 15 20

Atomic properties
Crystal structure hexagonal
Oxidation states 1, −1
(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 2.20 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 1312.0 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 25 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 53 pm (Bohr radius)
Covalent radius 37 pm
Van der Waals radius 120 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering ???
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 180.5 mW/(m·K)
Speed of sound (gas, 27 °C) 1310 m/s
CAS registry number 1333-74-0
Notable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of hydrogen iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
1H 99.985% H is stable with 0 neutrons
2H 0.015% H is stable with 1 neutrons
3H trace 12.32 y β− 0.019 3He

References
Hydrogen (Latin: hydrogenium, from Ancient Greek: hydro: "water" and genes: "forming") is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol H and atomic number 1. At standard temperature and pressure it is a colorless, odorless, nonmetallic, univalent, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas. Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is present in water, nearly all organic compounds and in all living organisms. Hydrogen is able to react chemically with most other elements. Stars in their main sequence are overwhelmingly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. The element is currently used primarily in fossil fuel upgrading. Other uses include as a lifting gas, as an alternative fuel (see Hydrogen economy), and more recently as a power source in fuel cells.

Different meanings of "hydrogen"
The word "hydrogen" means different things to different people, leading to much confusion.

Possible uses:

Hydrogen is the name of an element
Hydrogen is an atom, sometimes called "H dot" that is abundant in space but essentially absent on earth, because it dimerizes.
Hydrogen is a diatomic molecule that would be a convenient fuel except that it occurs naturally only in trace amounts and must be extracted from other sources, such as fossil fuels; chemists increasingly refer to H2 as dihydrogen to distinguish this molecule from atomic hydrogen and hydrogen found in other compounds,
Hydrogen is atomic constituent within all organic compounds, water, and many other chemical compounds.
Thus when one says that "hydrogen is ubiquitous in the universe, but surprisingly difficult to produce in large quantities on the Earth" we mean that H atoms and H2 occur in interstellar space but that these two species are rare or expensive to generate in pure form on earth. Obviously, the earth has lots of hydrogen, but it is all bound up in molecules such as hydrocarbons and water. In the laboratory, H2 is prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc. The electrolysis of water is a simple but expensive method of producing hydrogen. Large-scale production is usually by the process called steam reforming of natural gas.

The extraction of H2 from water or hydrocarbons requires energy; these are endothermic processes. H2 cannot be produced from water or hydrocarbons without the expenditure of energy, and this problem is the central quandry confronting hydrogen production. The one possibly sustainable method for production of H2 entails photochemical water "splitting," where the input energy comes from our sun. This approach avoids production of greenhouse-gases, which are associated with fossil fuels. Certain species of green algae utilize this method under very special conditions. Stripping H2 from biomass or even purified organic compounds such as glucose or sorbitol also generate greenhouse gases, the precursors are after all only hydrocarbons. Furthermore all such processes require catalysts.

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Basic features
Electronic structure
Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element; its most common isotope comprises just one negatively charged electron, distributed around a positively charged proton (the nucleus of the hydrogen atom — all other atoms have more complex nuclei involving more protons or neutrons). The electron is bound to the proton by the Coulomb force, the electrical force that one stationary, electrically charged nanoparticle exerts on another. The hydrogen atom has special significance in quantum mechanics as a simple physical system for which there is an exact solution to the Schrödinger equation; from that equation, the experimentally observed frequencies and intensities of hydrogen's spectral lines can be calculated. Spectral lines are dark or bright lines in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from an excess or deficiency of photons in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies.

At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2, with a boiling point of 20.27 K, and a melting point of 14.02 K. Under extreme pressures, such as those at the center of gas giants, the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a metal (metallic hydrogen). Under the extremely low pressure in space — virtually a vacuum — the element tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because it is statistically unlikely for them to combine. However, clouds of H2 and possibly single hydrogen atoms are said to form in H I and H II regions and are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton–proton and carbon–nitrogen cycle. These are nuclear fusion processes, which release huge amounts of energy in stars and other hot celestial bodies as hydrogen atoms combine into helium atoms.

At high temperatures, hydrogen gas can exist as a mixture of atoms, protons, and negatively charged hydride ions. This mixture has a high emissivity and absorptivity in the visible light range, and such emanations give rise to the light from the sun and other stars.

H2 is less soluble in water, alcohol, or ether than oxygen is. Its solubility and adsorption characteristics with various metals are very important in metallurgy (as many metals can suffer hydrogen embrittlement) and in developing safe ways to store it for use as a fuel.

Combustion
It reacts violently with chlorine and fluorine, forming hydrohalic acids, which can damage the lungs and other tissues. In air, it is highly flammable, burning at concentrations as low as 4% H2. When mixed with oxygen, hydrogen explodes upon ignition. A unique property of hydrogen is that its flame is nearly invisible in air. This makes it difficult to tell if a leak is burning, and carries the added risk that it is easy to walk into a hydrogen fire inadvertently.

See also: hydrogen atom.

Applications
Large quantities of H2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. By far the largest application of H2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels. The key consumers of H2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking[1]. H2 has several other important uses.

used in the hydrogenation of fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol.
H2 is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid
H2 is used in certain welding methods
H2 is used in the reduction of metallic ores.
H2 is an ingredient in some rocket fuels.
H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas.
Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies.
The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS-90 temperature scale.
Since H2 is 14.5 times lighter than air, it was once widely used as a lifting agent in balloons and airships. However, this use was curtailed after the Hindenburg disaster convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous for this purpose.
Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen (hydrogen-2), is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects.
Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints.
Hydrogen as an energy source
Hydrogen is not a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but a carrier, much like a battery. There are no "hydrogen wells" or "hydrogen mines" on Earth, so H2 cannot be considered a primary energy source such as fossil fuels or uranium. Since H2 is so light, any amount present on earth will float up into the atmosphere and out into space. H2 can however be burned in internal combustion engines, an approach advocated by BMW's experimental hydrogen car. There are several methods of storing hydrogen for transport applications, the most commonly-used being gaseous storage in gas cylinders similar to those used for the storage of any pressurised gas. Alternatives include storage as metal or chemical hydrides, cryogenic storage of liquid hydrogen (as in BMW's hydrogen internal combustion engine car) and research points to nanomaterials that will be able to store hydrogen more efficiently than any of the methods above. Crucially, there is another option for those wishing to drive a hydrogen-fuelled vehicle: on-board reformation. Often over-looked, this concept involves refuelling your vehicle with a hydrocarbon fuel such as ethanol, methanol, gasoline, diesel (preferably the biofuel alternatives) and then using an on-board reformer (a device that strips hydrogen from hydrocarbon fuel to leave carbon dioxide and water vapour as waste products) to convert the fuel to hydrogen just before it is needed by the engine.

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Emission spectrum of an ultraviolet deuterium arc lamp clearly showing characteristic hydrogen emission lines (sharp peaks at 656 nm and 486 nm) and continuum emission in the ~200-400 nm region. The emission spectrum of deuterium differs from that of protium due to the influence of hyperfine interactions, though these effects alter the wavelength of the lines by mere fractions of a nanometer and are too fine to be discerned by the spectrometer used here.Hydrogen fuel cells are being investigated as mobile power sources with lower emissions than hydrogen-burning internal combustion engines. The low emissions of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and fuel cells are currently offset by the pollution created by hydrogen production. This may change if the substantial amounts of electricity required for water electrolysis can be generated primarily from low pollution sources such as solar energy or wind. Research is being conducted on H2 as a replacement for fossil fuels. It could become the link between a range of energy sources, carriers and storage. H2 can be converted to and from electricity (solving the electricity storage and transport issues), from biofuels, and from and into natural gas and diesel fuel. All of this can theoretically be achieved with zero emissions of CO2 and toxic pollutants. (See also Hydrogen economy.)

In the Haber process for the production of ammonia and the world's fifth most produced industrial compound, hydrogen is generated in situ from natural gas.

History
Discovery of H2
H2 was first produced by Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493–1541)—also known as Paracelsus—by mixing metals with acids. He was unaware that the inflammable gas produced by this chemical reaction was H2. In 1671, Robert Boyle described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of H2.[2] In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize H2 as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from this reaction as "inflammable" and finding that the gas produces water when burned in air. Cavendish stumbled on H2 when experimenting with acids and mercury. Although he wrongly assumed that hydrogen was a compound of mercury—and not of the acid—he was still able to accurately describe several key properties of hydrogen.

Antoine Lavoisier gave the element its name and proved that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. One of the first uses of H2 was for balloons. The H2 was obtained by reacting sulfuric acid and metallic iron.

Because of its relatively simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure.

Isotopes of hydrogen
In 1931, Harold C. Urey discovered deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, by spectrographic study of the last residual milliliter after evaporation of 5 liters of cryogenically-produced liquid hydrogen. Urey was also able to concentrate deuterium in water by repeated fractional distillation. For the discovery of deuterium Urey received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934. In the same year, the discovery of the third isotope, tritium, was announced.

Electron energy levels
The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 92 nm.

With the Bohr Model the energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately. This is done by modeling the electron as revolving around the proton, much like the earth revolving around the sun, except that the sun holds earth in orbit with the force of gravity, but the proton holds the electron in orbit with the force of electromagnetism. Another difference between the Earth-Sun system and the electron-proton system is that, in this model, due to quantum mechanics the electron is allowed to only be at very specific distances from the proton. Modeling the hydrogen atom in this fashion yields the correct energy levels and spectrum. As an added feature, modeling the system fully using the reduced mass of nucleus and electron (as one would do in the two-body problem in celestial mechanics) yields an even better formula for the hydrogen spectra, and also the correct spectral shifts for the isotopes deuterium and tritium, which are induced by changes only in this parameter.

The electronic ground state energy level is split into hyperfine structure levels because of magnetic effects due to the quantum mechanical spin of the electron and proton. The energy of the atom when the proton and electron spins are aligned is 5.9 x 10-6 eV higher than when they are not aligned. The transition from the upper to lower levels can occur through emission of a photon through a magnetic dipole transition. A photon of this energy has a frequency of 1420.4 MHz and a wavelength of 21.1 cm. Astronomers observe this radiation with radio telescopes in order to map the distribution of hydrogen in the Galaxy.

Occurrence

NGC 604, a giant H II region in the Triangulum Galaxy.Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms. [3] This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. However, it is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume). Its scarcity is due to the fact that hydrogen is the lightest gas, allowing it to escape Earth's gravity. When compounds are included, though, hydrogen is the tenth most abundant element on Earth. The most common source for this element on Earth is water, which is composed two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen (H2O). Other sources include most forms of organic matter including coal, natural gas, and other fossil fuels. Methane (CH4) is an increasingly important source of hydrogen.

Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the plasma state whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora.